Seljuks from East to West or From Khorasan to Anatolia
Geography where seljuks state has appeared and its neighbours should be known for determining formation and interaction of Seljuks state organization. Early date of Seljuks family who are known to be Kınık tribe of Oghuz turks starts with Yengikent and Cent cities where are winter center of Oghuz yagbus which govern northern and southern parts of Seyhun river which pours into Aral Lake and northern sections of Aral Lake. Cend city which is located in Muslim Samani state and where population is muslim and commercial activities are intense is the city where Seljuks has accepted islam region. Even though circumstances has become harder Seljuks supported Samani state which was almost ruined and resisting karakhanids by the end of X. century. Nur town which is located at upper side of Samarkand and Buhara at center of Maveraünnehir as award for this support. They maintained this support until ruin of Samanis. In following period Seljuks tried to survive between tow super powers of Ghaznavids and Karakhanids. Then they captured Ghaznavid land Khorasan and founded their state. (1040). Seljuks and then Karakhanidss always brought down Ghaznavids which were ruling Afghanistan and Northern India in their controlling struggles.
Seljuks ruling spread to Iran, Iraq, Syria, Eastern and Southern Eastern Anatolia by conquests which has started just after foundation. There were many big and small states or emirates Iran during conquest. These were made obedient during Tuğrul Bey period. In Iraq thee was Abbasid State which was under invasion of Shii Buveyhi state. Seljuks which has entered into Baghdad terminated buveyhi domination and maintained collapse of this state. Even though relations between Abbasit Khalifat was friendly at the beginning, it did not continue with such manner and sometimes crisis and stresses have occurred.
Four regional Seljuks state has risen from Great Seljuks state in following times. Kirman 1048, Turkey 1075, Syria 1078 and Iraq 1119 Seljuks states were founded by members of seljuks dynasty as being affiliated with Great Seljuks. While others has become affiliated with Great Seljuks until the end Turkey seljuks has declared their independency because of competition within dynasty. Harizmşaj which was founded in 1097 and governing to Iran were Harizm governors who were appointed by Seljuks in the beginning then they transformed these to states which are affiliated with state. Many states which were found by atabehs which govern states for behalf of un experienced mekil princes and named with same names appeared in line with weakening of central authority over Syria and Iraq seljuks. Main of these area TOgteginliler/Boriler(Damascus), Zengiler(Cezire and Syria) İldenizliler (Azerbaijan) Salgurlılar (Persia). Seljuks had struggle with their nonmuslim neighbours a and Karahitay in Turkistan, Georgia in Caucasian area, Armenia in Eastern Anatolia and Cilicia and Byzantium states in Anatolia.
Naturally Turkey Seljuks considered Great Seljuks as basis with respect to their state organization. However we could not ignore the effect of two facts they encountered in Anatolia over state organizations. One of this is that they were founded over Byzantium lands which have rooted and developed structure. In fact even though influences off Byzantium state organization and enterprises over Seljuks were not investigated or ratio was not investigated, it is not possible to consider that they have less or more interaction. Other one is actual interventions over state organziatip together with political effects of Mongol invasion which was oppressing the Islamic world.
DYNASTY, IQTA AND GULAM SYSTEM
It can be observed that there are three main factors over principle of state organization is Seljuks state. These are dynasty structure which has common management style throughout history and ğulam an diqta system which form the source of state mechanism. In fact these three main factors are generally present in Medieval time Islamic states even though there are some differences. We should mention that to know state structure is not possible without knowing their importance and properties.
Dynasty which was accepted and considered as legitimate by society forms the source of state president, sultan and possible sultan candidates, state administrators, and prince melik. This property of dynasty makes it to be indisputable and alternativeless. However uncertainty about who will come instead of sultan even in limited numbers stirred up many prince riot and governance struggle.
Gulam system which is commonly applied in Medieval time Islamic states which is formed by supplying slave or captives is understood to come from Ghaznavids. This system trains qualified and trained personnel for court, center and state bureaucracy.
Iqta system which was applied in medieval Islamic states with some differences is constituent of Seljuks state. Land system where sate property was taken as principle (miri arazi) is a comprehensive system including tax collection which is applied by revenue, state and province management recruiting soldier in war time. Being source and penetrating for governemnti court, bureaucracy province management, finance and revenue presents its importance of these three organizations in state structure.
As it is in other medieval time Islamic states and Great Seljuks State, in Turkey Seljuks state was built with dynasty, iqta and gulam systems which start from court and diffuse to center, state and army organizations. However when power and authority of sultan is actually disappeared after invasion of Mongols, this harmony and balance was disrupted. Ilhanlı hans were able to ascent the prince in throne who they desire. Also they have promoted the chaos by recognizing a prince as sultan while other one is in throne. Also they could assign persons in offices like atabeg naibi sultanes and can appoint person who are affiliated with ilhan except sultan’s men.
DYNASTY AND SULTAN
Before Islam It was believed by Turks that authority an power of political power (kut) is giwen by God (charismatic governance) that is rulership depends divine source. According to this belief, ruler who has found or starts to lead should member of family which was sent by god and awarded with kut. It seems that this understanding has continued after acceptance Islam religion. Hence as it is all dynasties which have arisen from Oghuzs, Seljuks dynasty attributes themselves to legendary Oghuz Hani, Kınıklar which is one of 24 Oğhuz tribes. Personaity where Seljuks had its name is Selçuk bey who is son of dukak who has title Temür Yaluğ and head of soişders. We know that Selçuk Bey has important position in that location and had immigrated after leacing from there for some reasons and went to Cend, he became Muslim there and he struggled there as Oghuz Yagbu. We can see that he had charismatic personality during this peripd and Oghuzs come together around it. This charisma and kut which has appeaed in personality of Sekçk bey was inherited to his sons after his death. Even though his older son Asrlan yabgu has become leader of family with yabgu title this could not be made general practice. Opposite idea for person who will be successor bey yabgu, or sultan will be member of family could not be considered and this is privileged condition. However breaking point or dilemma for dynasty starts from this point. In this case practice about which member will be leader could not be formed. It is observed in Seljuk’s history that any prince becomes sultan depending on varying reasons such as being older, oldest member of dynasty, prince which was appointed or any other reason. Sometimes mother of princes and external forces out of dynasty became effective that is prince who is member of dynasty can be sultan. Naturally this viewpoint has promoted numerous government struggles and prince riots I history . Factor which determines the result of this challenge has always become power superiority.
Turkey Seljuk’s state which is regional extension of Great Seljuks was found by Kutalmışoğulları who was member of Seljuks dynasty. Suleyman Şah and his borthers departed from their uncle Mikail and achieved to found independent state in Anatolia. However first two sultans Süleymanşah and I. Kılıçarsan lost their lives in force struggles with Great Seljuks because of southeasten (El Cezire, Syria) policy.
Kutalmışoğulları able to continue their governance in Anatolia despite these struggles. Like appearance of Kut Belief as it can be seen from Other Seljks, governance struggles of princes continued. However sometimes tradition of dividing country lands between princes continued. This practice was abandoned since division of country between 11 sons of II Kılıçarslan has caused shock within country
Struggles which were implemented for behalf of princes who could not maintain superiority over each other during Mongols invasion period where power and authority of sultan was ruined was drifting country into chaos. Even though it is not mentioned in states tradition, experienced and respected states applied for solution of making two or three brothers as ruler.
Its legitimacy was not discussed despite all these power losses. Hense as it can be seen in Sadeddin Köpek and Cimri problems people who has resorted to throne claim could appear that they are from Seljuks dynasty. However they were failed despite these claims.
Sultan And Abbasid Khalifa
When it is compared with intense relations between Great Seljuk State and Sunni Khalifa which has become more stressful in time relation between Turkey Seljuks and Abbasi Khalifas are less frequent and symbolic. While Süleymanşah is looking legitimacy despite Great Seljuks sultan melikşah and they requested appointment of Shii kadi and preachers. Even though this indicates that it has preferred fatımid khalifa it should be accepted that this is rather political challenge. Until 1266 Khalifa was being mentioned in with el İmam el Musta sim billa and someteis el imam el masum billah names in Turkey Seljuks monies until invasion of Baghdad by Hulagu. 1258. Names of khalifas were never mentioned in coins during Kılıçarsan and following period after chaliphate has passed under governance of Memluks. Sometimes II kılıçarslan and following sultans used expression of burhanus/kasimum/nasru Emirul Muminin ( evidence/partnet/assistant of Emir of Muslims .
Other valuable relation was Khalifa en Nasır li Dınilla sent indications of futuuvvet to Seşjuk sultan I. keykavus and including him in organization to be head of Futuvvet Turkish ıslamic guild organization and utilize from power of this organization . He has sent these indications were brough by important sufi of period Seyh Şihabuddin Suhreverdi and later same sufi sent to Anatolia again because of Alaeddin Keykubat2 s ascending in throne.
Overlord state and Dependent
Turkey Seljuks State has mamde some regional forces to be subjected to him in Anatolia until invasion of Mongıl. I. Hetum from Cilcia Armenia kings had to be subjected to be Turkey Seljuks during I. keykubat and II. Keyhusrev periods and included names and titles of these sultans over these coins. Also Mardin and Amid and Hısn –Keyfa Artus, Erzincan and Divriği meguces, Sumeysat and Aleppo Ayyubid meliks and Musul atabed Bedrüddn Lülü had to be subject to Turkey Seljuks sultan in some periods. However Turkey Seljuks had to be subjected to Mongols after this grandness period.
From 1243 Kösedağ defeat until ruin they were subdued by great Mongol han in Karakorum by regional mongol state altındorda and than other regional mongol state İlhanids which is located in Iran. Even III. Keykubat has placed name of Gazan han as overlors over coins .
Figure 1: Dirhem coin which was minted Ayyubid Melik En Nasır II. Yusug In Aleppo in 637/1239-40 while he was subjected to II. Gıyaseddin keyhusrev
Figure 2: Bilingual dram which was minted by Cilicia Armenian King I. Hetum While he was subjected to Sultan I. A. Keykubat.
Symbols of Sultan
Everything which belongs to Sultan has become his sign in time Throne and crown is naturally exclusive to sultan. Other symbols can be used by subsidiaries and other statesmen together with some restrictions. But ones which belong to sultan were different, subline and unique. Title nickname, tah, instructing name in sermon, coin, stamping nevbet, tughra, and tecki, court and pavilion, çetr, and gaşiye are some of these.
Title- nickname- tag: Title is the adjective or adjective clauses which officially expresses political status of government. There are several rumors about that whether first ruler Süleymanşah has personally used sultan title. I. Kılıçarslan is mentioned with Sultan name. As other Seljuks sultans Turkey Seljuks rulers generally used es sultanuş muaazzam ( great, grand sultan) and then es sultanul azam ( greatest sultan). . I keyubat used these two titles irregularly and separately and then after his II. Keyhusrev all Seljuks rulers used es sultanul azam title As state loose power during Mongols invasion period, invressely proportional with this it seems that sultans has more assertive titles.
Different from others II. Süleyanşah used es sultanul kahir(dashed sultan) I. keykavus used es sultanul galib( winner ultan). After Kosedağ defeat II. Keyhusrev and some following sultans added title of zillulahi fi lalem ( shadow of Allah in eath) to coins. Longer and decorative titles are observed in epigraphes. Princes used melik title.
Nicknames which were generally used medieval Islamic world are generally in form adjective + üddünya +üddin, üütdevlet, +ülmiller. Seljuk sultans generally used nicknames such as izzuddin (honor, power of religion ) ğıyasuddün ( assister of religion) ruknuddin ( chief pillar of religion) alauddin ( great, honor of religion). Nicknames which are used in coins always occur as ızz/gıyas/rukn/ala) +uddunya and ddinç . again tag tradition in form bu( father) continued in Seljuks. Turkey Seljuks sultans generally used ebul fet h tags.
Sermon: Sermon which is an element of Cuma and eid sallah has become a symbol which authority and political government has expressed himself. Sermon which was an opportunity for government which can establish with contact with society and can express itself naturally and effectively was effectively utilized bu khalifa and rulers. First work to do by prince who ascend in throne was to provide to instruct his name in sermons. Otherwise it is considered as rioted. If Abbasi Khalifa considers the request of prince which has applied to him as suitable he provides his name to be instructed in Baghdad and surrounding areas. Thereby legitimacy of government is accepted.
It is obvious that Request of I. Suleymanşah about kadı and preacher form Trabslusşaö ruler after he has conquered tarsus is not belief request and it is obvious that it political maneuver against Sultan Melikşah. On the other hand that rumor of Sultan Melikşah gas instructed his name in sermon (and name of Abbasid khalida and cut coin is weak. All turkey seşjuk sultans instructed their names in sermons beginning from I. Kılıçarslan. Some Artuq,s Ayyubid,s, abd Begtegins in Erbil has instructed name of Seljuk Sultans in sermons as sign of their subjections when Turkey seljuks ae powerful southern anatokia, Syria and el cezire.
Coin: There are text and symbols indicatin manager which minted money are present over coins for maintaining monetary discipline, reliability which are indeed economic tool. Also managers take the advantage of coins to reach every part of society for spreading and acceptance of authority.
First coins which survived from turkey seljus periods belong to Suştan 1. Mesut. In copper coin Sultan 1. Mesud indicates independency with es sultanul muazzam title but there is illustaration of Byzantium emperor in other face. It is understood that this practice was made for maintaining new coins to be adopted by local people too. First golden dinar was minted by II. Kılıçarslan and then II. Süleymanşah minted it. Majority of coins consist of silver dirhams and copper fels. It was determined that coins are made in 45 royal mints. Konya, Sivas and kayseri are leading mints where most coins are minted. As it can be aboce titles, where they are govern, subjection relations can be determine over coins. Lancer cavalry, arrow shhoing cavalry, lyon and sun illustrations are shown over coins. All of princes were included over coins when two or more princes governing at the same time.
Figure 3: dirham coin which was cointed by Sultan II Süleyman Şah (596/1199-1220 minted in Aksaray
Figure 4: Dinar which was minted by Sultan I. izzeddin keykavus in konya 613/1216-17
Figure 5: Dirham with lion sun illustration which was minted by Sultan II. Gıyasedding Keyhusrev in Sivas (639/1241-42)
Figure 6: Dirham which was minted by IV. R. Kılıç Arslan (646/1248-49) in Sivas.
Figure 7: Dirham which was minted by Sul II. İ Keykavus (656/1258) in Develi
Tughra and Tevki: Tughra which is a Turkish word is used for signs of rulers in Oghuz turs which are used in official documents, coins and epigraphs. Tevki is Arabic word and its used for decision of rulers in Medieval Islamic states, their written copies and imperial order and also it used as correspondence for tughra.
We know that tughra is used as arrow bow or as only bow in Great Seljuks, Kirman and Iraq Seljuks states and we know that they are samples over coins. It can be seen that in Turkey seljuks tughra is transformed in sultan/es sultan wrd in documents and epigraphs by mid of XIIIth century. They are written in some endowments and conveyance in wide capital letters. Also es ultani belonging to sultan world can be some epigraphs of some building which were constructed by dignitaries.
It is understood that Tevki is written over upper part of Tughra for expressing power of Allah in imperial order (menşur). It is possible to see samples of tevkis which are used exclusively for seljuks sultans over coins. These are elizzetullillah, el minnetulillah, elmulkü lillah and el azamatu lillah. It is understood that how strong rulers are they want to mentioned that real power and force and property belongs to Allah and they understood this and they want to express this before using tughra and mentioning hisname
Figure 8.: Tevki and tughra which located in endowment of Celaleddin karata caravansari
Nevbet: Beating Nevbet (mehter /band ) every day five time (salaah times) in front of pavilion of sultan means that sultanate is still ongoing This was a tradition which is inherited from older Turks. Also this nevbet team acts in great meetings, when there is pleasing evolvement and in wars. Nevbet team was called as nevbetiyye and area where they are located is called as nevbethane or tablhane. Subsidiaries which allowed by sultan can only beat nevbet for three times a day.
Tıraz and Hilat : Clothes of rulers which are sewn from valuable clothes and which have name, title, tag and nickname of strip was called as tıraz. Gifst which sultan gices to foreign statesment, incoming messenger and statesmen for honoring, awarding, promotion or appoint were called hilat. These gifts particularly consists of sewn which are sewn from valuable clothes and it also includes money, sword, belt, horse, saddle or ğulams.
There are many records that in Turkey Seljuk send or give hilat to dignitary statesent, also foreign rulers, vassals, melik princes, statesmen important people of which punishment were forgiven, messengers kısad, couriers, person who performed an important mission, poets
Çetr: This is Sanskrit word which means umbrella that is held over head for protecting against sun. In eastern societies çetr was eşd over head of ruler while he was over horse, walking or sitting at throne by ğulam (çetrdar). In turkey Seljuks color of umbrella which is called as çetri humayun, çetri cihangir or çetri şahanşah was black. It is understood that çetr is not just simple shade appearance or opening it means that it has same meaning with opening starboard. Because in several ceremonies presence of sultan can be understood remotely from çetr in ceremonies, travels, and in battle field. Therefore symbolic meaning for it was very important. People who see çetr from far away gets down from horses and even kiss the ground and present their respect. Accidentally fall down of çetr during war may lead soldiers feel worry about life of their sultan and loss of war because of confliction.
Figure 9: Çetr which is held over Seljuk sultan sencer when an old women was presenting petition to sultan.
Ğaşiye: Ğaşiyye which is an Arabic word means cover of saddle even though it has many meanings. However in Seljuks history we can see it as a completely different sign rather than ordinary saddle cover. It is used for presenting carrying people which should carry people who should present respect to ruler or obedient with them. Normally Ğaşiye is carried over hand by rikadar which is present in cortege of Sultan. However it can be seen that after conquer of city for obedience of city ruler to sultan or meeting ceremonies for subsidiaries to present their loyalty. Subsidiaries carry ğaşive of ruler over heads or shoulders and walk under it.
COURT AND ORGANIZATION
Court is space where they are house of rulers and manage the state. There are several courts which belong to ruler and members of dynasty where remains of it has survived in several locations. Main of those are Alladdin villa in Konya, Keykubadiya Court in kayseri, Kubadabad Court next to Beyşehir lake, Alaye (Alanya)Court, Alara Castle Quasr, Antalya Court. Courts which are located in coastal areas were used as summer house and ones which are located in inner side high locations are used as summer houses.
Pat where sultan lives his life together with his family and servants is called as harem. Wives of married wives of sultan, young aged children and courtesans which serve tham and under control of hace saray eunuc were located there. There were muganni and Muganniyes (male and female singers) mutrip and mutribes (male and female musicians) for entertaining sultan and ,physicians and muabbir dream interpreters. Generally sultans take harem together with them and send them to safer places in dangerous cases.
Personnel for sultan who provides close service and performs general works generally selected from people who were treated by Ğulam system. Ğulams who perform buying slaves, selling slaves or type of sending gift were trained in ğulamhane by people who are called as baba “father”. After this training they start to serve in several organizations of court like court, government, army, state etc according to their competence. Court emirs generally have other secondary or tasks except their main tasks since they are trusted more. Because most of records concerning with court emirs are concerning with such missions. These emirs who consist of sword compotents serve as commander or send as messenger.
Majority of these servants are present sometimes similarly and with minor differences in Great Seljuks court. Main emirs which also have their own ğulams are as following with respect to importance order
Melikül hüccab or emir –I I hacib: It is highest rank officer of court. He has hacibs under his control.
He provides contact between sultan and Divanı Ala- high council. However in sources they are mentioned and commanders or temporary tasks such as messenger.
Emir-I perdedar: He is emir who is responsible for ones are goes to or from presence of Sultan.
Üstadü d-dar. This is the official who meets requirements of courts kitcgen, oven and barn and salaries court personnel from sources which are allocated from sources.
Emir-I dad: He was executing penalties of person who are punished for committing political crime against particularly sultan and state. People was afraid of him very much since he has very influencing task and which has hi court and subordinates.
Emir-i ahur: this emir is responsible from court’s barn and horse of sultan.
Emir-I alem: This emir carries starboard of sultan during campaigns and ceremonies and he is responsible from starboard.
Emir-I camedar: He is responsible from camehane where clothes of sultan are present and clothing of sultan. Emir-I camedar and subordinares present clothes and golden hilats within javelles for sultans who ascend in throne.
Emir- i candar: this title is formed with can which means gun is Persian and dar which means carrier. This emir is emir who is responsible fromsecurity of emir sultan and court.
Emir-I çalniigr: Çaşnigir is a Persian composition who keeps tastes and tastes falovors. He is responsible for meals and dining table of sultan and determines whether meals are poisonous. Therefore his greatest struggle was taking precautions for preventing this since firstly he will lost his own life.
Emir-I meclis: Task of this emir which was not observed in other Seljuk states was to organize entertainment meetings.
Emir-I silah: This emir is responsible from silahhane weapon house of court and carries the weapon of sultan in ceremonies.
Emir-I şikar /Emirüsayd: this emir is responsible from hunting animals of court and organizes the hunting ceroomonies of sultan which is some kind of war practice. It is understood that bazdar who is responsible from hunting birds ( birdman, falcon man) works as subordinate of this emir.
Emirü t-taşt/taşti: There is not much information about actual task of this emir in resources and he is responsible from cloth washing containers, sword, footwear, cushion, mattress and similar goods which are used by ruler for washing hand face, performing ablution like wash bowl, pitcher granite.
Şarabdar-ı/hass/Şarab salar: He is responsible from şarabhane where all kind of drinks are kept and drinks in ruler assemblies and drinks of ruler’s guests.
Haznedar-I (Hıznedar-ı) hass: He is responsible from treasury where money, jewellary, hilat, arm and other valuable sets are kept.
Rikabdar: Emir who is owner of this title meaning stirrup holder assists ruler while he is getting on and down the horse and carries the gayşiye which is sing of sultanate in ceremonies.
Astrologer(Müneccim): This person deals with astrology and makes estimation about positive and adverse evolvements before important decisions of sultan.
Üstad-s Saray (teacher) He deals with education of princes. It is understood that he gives training about correspondences, communication, calculation and history.
CENTRAL (GOVERTNMENT) ORGANİZATION
It seems that government and bureaucracy tradition in Great Seljuks which is part of Medieval Eastern Islam world which is under influence of Sasani Bureaucracy heritage is also observed in Turkey Seljuks state. Generally there are not changes in authorities of vizier, operation of Divan-I ala supreme council abd practice of attendance of leaders of four councils into this council. However Mongolian invasion caused appearance of some different practices.
Vizier: Vizier starts to work with menşur (imperial order) of sultan. It manages all state affairs with capacity of having all executing , legislation and judgment authorities. Generally task area and authorities of vizier are same with Great Seljuks vizier. However after actual case which was created by Mongol invasion started to work according to requests of İlhanid rulers and general governors who were appointed by them rather than sultans of which authorities were removed.
Moving further İlhanids started to appoint a second vizier and atabed who are affiliated with them except vizier of sultan. Therefore works for statesmen are generally for the advantage of İlhanids rather than Seljuks state and country.
Divan-I Ala: This great council of which chairman is vizier can be considered as correspondence or government or cabinet of ministers. Other members of divan are heads of divan-I tuğra/imşa, divan-I istifa, divan-I arz, divan-I işraf and naib-I saltanat, atabeg and pervane. First four of these are same with Great Seljuks sample and other can be seen in Turkey’s Seljuk practices.
Divan-I Tuğra/inşa: title of head is sahib-I divan-I tuğra/inşa or tuğrai. This council issues internal and external diplomatic, official correspondence and other documents and issues tughras for imperial order.
Divan-I İstifa: title of head is sahib-I-divan-I istifa or müstevfi. This council organizes revenue and expenses of treasury and prepared annual budget. This corresponds current ministry of finance.
Divan- Arz: Head was called as sahib-ii divan-arz and representatives in states were called as arız. Determination of number of soldiers and recruitment, supplying mişitary equipment, record and control, management of iqtas which were conferred to soldiers, payment of salaries which are called as mistegani for hassa army in every three months are under responsibility of this council. That is its area of office corresponds to ministry of defense.
Divanı-I işraf: Its head was called as sahibi divan-I işraf or müşrif. He is responsible from controlling and supervision of financial affairs of state, revenue and costs and their
Other statesmen which participate to divan-ala except from four head of councils different form great seljuks:
Atabeg: This title can be seen in Seljuks. In great seljuks one bureaucrat who is reliable and has experience is sent together with prince who are sent to states as melik. He manages the state for behalf of prince and prince gets experience. Task of atabeg continued in Seljuks dynasty too. When princes who ascend in throne in Iraq Seljuks moved their atabegs to center, caused their mission area from limited melik atabeg to sultan atabeg. Institution gained an aspect except than its meaning. Zengis in Musul, and İldenizs in Azerbaijan, Salgurlus in Perisa has transformed in political organizations like meliklik, emirlik and atabeglik.
There were melik and sultan atabeg practice in Turkey Seljuks. However precautions were taken for preventing it turn into political organization. Different from Great Seljuks, atabegs were attending to divan I ala starting from sultan atabeg practice which starts with Iraq Seljuks. Even though area of activities of vizier, atabeg and naib-I saltanat are certain it can be seen that owners of these offices deal with works which can coincide with each other. İlhanids intervene these offices during Mongol invasion peripd and started to appoint a second atabeg who is responsible against İlhanids.
Naib-I saltanat: Even though naib title was used as representative of several offices, title of naib-I saltanat most possibly used first time in medieval islam world and in Turkey Seljuks. First samples are observed by early XIII century. Mission of naib-i saltanat is to be deputy of Sultan when he left capital city. Even though situation of Ebu l kasim which Süleyman Şah left instead of him during Syria campaign and Ebu-l gazi who performed office after him is suitable with this case, it is not known whether that title has appeared in that period. Insources this office is mentioned with different clauses such as niyabet I hazret I saltanat or niyabet I slatant I rum,. It comes after atabeg and vizier in protocol. When central authority ruined after domination of Mongols, statesmen entered into cooperation with them for their prosperity. Two head occurred in these offices like atabeg and vizier. Naib for behalf of Mongol han started to be appoint except naïb of sultan. As result İlhanid Abaka han appointed vizier Sahip Ata as his niyabet I hazret I ulya and Müstevfi Celaleddin Mahmud as naibüs saltanatül muazzama. In the abstract their area of activity is determined there are not certain differences in works of vizier, atabeg and naib-i saltanat. In sources tasks for persons having this title seems to be protect and eliminate them, to suppress riots, to defend capital city, to provide support against Mongols by meeting with neighbor countries, to work as messenger and to be head of bridal procession.
Divan- pervanegi: Some kind of documents and person who prepare them are called as pervane and office which issues these documents are called as divab o pervanegi. We do not have much information about Pervane term which is understood to be important judgment and imperial order in Great Seljuks. Pervanegi is responsible from land works such as property, iqta and issuıes assignment, transfer and census documents concerning with this, prepares menşur and certificates. He is member of divan- I ala even though it is not top level service. Issues about when it started to be member, this case was outstanding because of Mongol invasion or personal influences over sultans should be investigated. Most famous of pervanes which gave his name to a period during Mongol invasion period was Muinuddin Süleyman Pervane . Because his power was caused from its personal properties and force rather than pervane office.
There were some other councils which were not affiliated with divan I ala and heads of those were not attending to council meetings.
Divan-I mezalim: This council which was common in Medieval Islamic states was inherited to Seljuks too. This was highest rank office where people claim right avout officers and soldiers who use their force badly and applied pressure and received more tax from civil people and hope justice appears. This council which meets twice a day in first times of Great Seljuks and sultan was personally head of council later he left these liabilities to vizier, and meliks and leaders of kadis in state and provinces. This council is present in Turkey Seljuks. Hence it is known that II. Keyhusrev comes to this council divan I mezalim (dad gah on Mondays and Thursday and listen complaints in presence of imams and kadis and dispences justice.
Divan-evkaf-I memalik: Foundations who are autonomous organizations are subjected to endowment accordingly with provisions who has founded as it is issued by kadi according to foundations law. Unless there are Practices contrary with foundation law , abuses, corruptions or disputes there is not any external intervention. Otherwise divan –I evkafı memalik takes control over event initiates investigation and judges responsible.
Divan-I hass: He is responsible for lands of which revenues are allocated to sultan.
PROVINCE ORGANIZATION AND IQTA SYSTEM
As it is known province is tax source of state and grain warehouse of society. Iqta tax was collected from soils were grain are planted and cropped and also cereals need of country is met. Iqta which is present in Medieval Islamic world was developed and popularized by Nizamulmulk as military iqta and military system which depends on land and which attends to army only in war cases has occurred. This practice continued in Ottoman state under name of tımar as ppart of miri arazi system where property of state over country’s land is principle.
We can mention main properties of this system as following:
- Land revenue tax is collected separate from type of planted crop.
- Service prices of managers who are appointed to provinces and states are collected in situ.
- Provinces where they appointed or smaller administrative units are managed by muktas. ( iqta owners during peace period
- Soldiers of which amount is determined before campaign are provided to attend to
- Tax collection, state management and solider recruitment is maintained by this system and there by source wastage and unnecessary employment is prevented. There was no need money transfer between center and state and revenues are evaluated according to their own region.
- In addition that mukta does not have property in land and also it does not have disposal over peasant who process soil and gives tax. Similarly system does not have feudal character since tax is not determined by iqta owner, state determines it and iqta owner does have disposition over peasants. In great Seljuks, management of entire state was given to meliks and great commanders and thereby iqta revenues were allocated without dividing. All these problems were observed when central authority has weakened and thereby different practice was initiated for granting iqta. Iqta lands which are allocated to a governor in return of administrative service (salary/price) were not given as single piece, they are granted in different locations that is away from location where they perform governorate. Thereby opportunity for riot was not given in iqta areas which is also recruitment period. Also this practice was given up since indications of political degradation has appeared after Sultan II. Kılıçarslan has allocated company management between his 11 sons
- Iqta was granted to court emit and bureaucrats in centra organization as additional revenue. However these are separated from administrative iqtas since they do not live in iqta areas and were not given for food supply for soldiers.
- There were personal iqtas which was inherited from father to son and appeared as money donation.
In addition that it is not as much as certain in Great Seljuks, there are state administrative units in province management in Turkey Seljuks. Even though state name is not mentioned, locations where governors are appointed are not only consists of city they are mentioned together with their surrounding. This indicates that state management is applied actually.
We can mention titles which administrators who were sent to provinces as manager such as following. :
Melik(prince), meliküs sevahil/reiül bahr, sahin, sübaşı /serleşker, mukta, naib
MILITARY ORGANIZATION
Military organization of Turkey Seljuk has the property of being successor of Great Seljuks with respect to military organization. Thereny both of them are based on Turkmen because of their stepped Turkish state which is based on unions of tribes. However Turkmens which form the main element and majority of military forces were resisting the central policies of Seljuks sultan and played role which may shock state in prince riots so that they were made out of system in time. In Great seljuks they were tried to be distributed within Gulam system as alternative of them for breaking tribe solidarity based upon recommendation of nizamulmulk. Elements which resist despite this migrated to western side and concentrated in Azerbaijan and Anatolia. Turkmens were pushed towards End sides in Turkey Seljuks where same problem was experienced in 1176 but the began to provide military service under administration of margraves and formed foundation of beyliks for second period.
Ğulam Soldier:
These are permanent, professional soldiers having salary which were selected from Ğılam which were trained in Ğulamhanes after being supplied with several ways. It is known that there are many ğulams from different elements in Turkey Seljuks such as Turki Kıpçaki, Hıtay, Kurd, Tajik, Deylemli, Kazvinli, Keşmirli, Armenian, Georgina, Rus, Frank and even Chinese. These are referred with different names with respect to their location and tasks.
Ğulaman-I ass: these were ğulams which mention entire court ğulams, selected from ğulaman* dergah and directly affiliated with personnaly with sultan and they always with Sultan. These perform personal service and quardianship of sultan but they are assigned with different works based upon order of sultan.
Some of soldiers which were selected from brave and grand ones perform guardianship of court and some of them works as guardian for sultan. Other part of Ğulamanı hassa were mulazimans who were expressed as servants. Mulazimanı yatak I humayun were personally in service of sultan and thereby they were forming an important place in hassa army.
İkta Soldier
As it was mentioned before iqta system which has multi aspects is that it makes contribution army by soldiers which are recruited before campaigns in iqta areas. Turkey Seljuks state was an extension of Great Seljuks and inherited this system which was one of its main factors. However military iqtas were made smaller and authorities of emirs which were send to provinces as sübasşı commande (serleşker) was limited as to commander of soldiers in area which they will recruit. These positive changes strengthened the central authority and made contribution for stability and development of country until Mongol invasion. İqta soldiers which are known as leşker I kadim in sources were dealing with their own works during peace time but they were recruited in army when there is campaign order. Salary was not paid for these soldiers as it is in professional soldiers and mercenaries.
Mercenaries
These were mercenaries having different origins mainly franks and Turkmens are included which are supplied when required. This application is observed in Turkey Seljuks by early XIII century .These soldiers which are mentioned in sources as leşker I hadis were effective sometimes. Hence it is known that frank soldiers which were forefront against Turkmens were effective in suppression of bbai report.
Ancillary forces
Cilicia Armenia kingdom which has to be subjected to be state, Trabzon rum state, Artuqs which are ruling Eastern, Southern-Eastern Anatolia and Northern Syria, Menguceks and Ayyubids were sending soldier when area and city rulers need according to liability of subjection.
There were irregular voluntary troops such as evbaş, ayyar , city forces, veterans which attend to army by themselves of compulsorily.
Navy
It is known that first Navy was founded by Çaka bey who was contemporaries of Seljuks and who gave his daughter to Sultan I. Kılıçarasn and which has found a beylik around izmir and had activities in Aegeans see. However Sultan I. Kılıçarslan who has relied on Byzantium emperor eliminated his father in law. First Seljuks navy was founded by Ebul kasım which I. Süleymanşah has left him instead of himself. Even though ship construction was started in Kios port in Marmara sea, Byzantium navy fired these ships.
After these experiences by end of XII century where political stability was maintained, steps started to be taken for economic developments. Caravansarais were built maintains road safety for development of domestic and foreign trade. Antalya, kalonoros (Alaiyye-Alanya) and Sİnop port cities even Suğdak port in Kırım was conquered. Remains of shipyard which was made for construction of navy in Alanya has survived until present time.
Commander of navy which had reisül bahr title was located in Sinop which is marine base in Black sea by mid XIII century. It is understood that this commandership has arrived to Mediterranean coasts, Antalya and Alanya after mongol invasion and had titles of firstly emirüs sevahil and then melikü-s sevahil.
Divan-arz:
As it was mentioned before this council was responsible from administrative affairs of army, supplying soldier, salaries of ğulam soldiers, control of iqtas, maintaining equipment for army, preparation of campaign route, inspection of soldiers, determination and distribution of captures and keeping records.
Administrative Staff of Army
Beylerbeyi: Chief commander of army is naturally hakan or sultan according to Tyrkish state traditions. Highest rank military office after this was beylerbeyi (emirül umera). This should correspond emir I sipehsa chief commander in Great Seljuks. Except these beylerbeyi in center there were Sahivi Etrak in other edges. Howeve any emir who was appointed as army commander has the title of beylerbeyi. Because persons who have this title, or vizier or any court emir could be appointed as commander.
Sübaşı (Serleşker): Generally it has Ğulam origin and they are responsible for administrative or military works for one or more provinces, or smaller administrative units or castles. They are divided into two group such as serleşkeran I saltanat and serleşkeri I vilayet I uç. Training iqta soldiers in their region, make them ready for war together with their arm and equipments were their task. İqta and salary were granted for their office their task are determined by center (divan I arız, people who commit ignorance and defecrs are heavily punished.
Ellibaşı- head of fifty: They were commanding troops consisting of fifty iqta soldiers.
Kutval /Dizdar/ Kaledar. They are castle commanders who were appointed by Sultan or Sübaşı. They are responsible from safety and peace where castle is located. These have salaries and iqta revenues too.
Equipment of Army
As the other states of era, Turkey seljuks were using sword, dagger, spear, knobs, axe for close fighting and lifgt arms such as bow and arrow for remote distant fights. Defense equipment consists of shield, hard hat and armor and heavy weapons were catapult, arrada, çarh and neft. Particularly it is known issue that arrows and horse riding has important place for winning wars throughout Turkish history.
LEGAL ORGANIZATION
According to Nizamulmulk, sultan is the owner of judgment, sutan should appoint naib if he does not know Islamic law. That is kadis are their naibs that is they judge for behaşf of them. As it can be seen from other İslamic states, justice is maintained in towns, provinces that is in all country by kadis. Kadil Kulat ( Kadi of Kadis, chief kadi) was the head of legal organization. He was appointed by ceremony which was held by Sultan. Kadıl kudat and kadis were theoretically not depended on sultan or divan I ala and they were deciding independently. However in practice their authorities were limited they were executing orders of sultan and they could be dismissed by him. They were affiliated with governor in states and provinces. Scholars and people who are from scribe family and generally it was inherited from father to son. Kadi is authorized in religion and sharia law and council has to support him. Kadi is also judge that is customary court is implemented by him. Sources which are used by Kadi during legal activities are Quran, Haditg, words of sectarian imam and friends of his holiness prophetcompanions and rules which were issued by antecedents. Kadis are the only authorized decision bodu for works in dialy life, divorce, real estate, purchase, sales, arrangement of endowments and their register, disputes concerning with foundations and several issues such as ordinary crimes. Like Great Seljuks there was other Kadi which has title of kadıyı haşem andleşkeri hazret concerning with courts about members of Hassa (bodyguard of Sultan) armies. This kadi also supervises the foundations.
